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Century: I–II

The Eucharist
Did the early Church teach that the bread and wine of the Eucharist become the actual body and blood of Christ, or did it understand the Eucharist as a symbol or memorial only?
Ignatius of Antioch identified the Docetists' rejection of the Eucharist as the logical consequence of their denial of Christ's physical body: "They…
Historically Verified
5 sources AD 107–749
The Eucharist
Did the early Church understand the Eucharist as a sacrifice — or merely as a commemorative meal?
The connection between Malachi's pure offering in every place and the Eucharist is made by the Didache, Justin Martyr, and Irenaeus independently.…
Historically Verified
4 sources AD 96–185
Petrine Ministry
Is there credible early evidence that the Apostle Peter was martyred in Rome, or is the Roman martyrdom a later legend?
Clement of Rome, writing c. AD 96 from Rome, describes the martyrdoms of Peter and Paul as belonging to "our own generation"…
Historically Verified
4 sources AD 64–200
Scripture & Tradition
Did the early Church teach that Scripture alone is the sole rule of faith, or did it appeal to a living apostolic tradition transmitted through episcopal succession?
Irenaeus's argument against the Gnostics is decisive: the Gnostics also had Scripture and also claimed to interpret it correctly. If Scripture alone…
Historically Verified
4 sources AD 96–434
Scripture & Tradition
Did Irenaeus of Lyon use the publicly known succession of bishops in Rome as the criterion of orthodox teaching — implying that succession, not Scripture alone, is the rule of faith?
The power of Irenaeus's argument is that it is publicly verifiable. He does not say: trust the bishop's interpretation of Scripture. He…
Historically Verified
2 sources AD 185
The Sacraments
Did the early Church require sinners to confess to a bishop or priest and receive absolution, or did it teach that sins are forgiven by direct personal confession to God alone?
Origen's description of the penitential process is revealing: he lists confession to the priest as one of the means of the remission…
Historically Verified
3 sources AD 96–390
The Sacraments
Did the early Church teach baptismal regeneration — that baptism actually forgives sins and regenerates the soul — or did it understand baptism as a symbol of inner conversion already accomplished?
Justin Martyr, writing to the pagan Roman emperor around AD 155 to explain Christianity, describes baptism as regeneration and says it is…
Historically Verified
3 sources AD 96–430
Ecclesiology
Was the early Church governed by bishops with authority over presbyters and deacons, or by councils of equal elders as in the Presbyterian or congregational model?
Ignatius does not argue for episcopacy — he assumes it. He writes to multiple cities and addresses the bishop of each as…
Historically Verified
3 sources AD 96–185
Ecclesiology
Did the early Church use the publicly traceable succession of bishops from the apostles as the primary criterion for identifying orthodox Christian teaching?
Tertullian's argument in On Prescription is precise: the Scriptures belong to the Church because they were entrusted to the Church by the…
Historically Verified
3 sources AD 175–200
Scripture & Tradition
"The canon of Scripture used by the early Church included the seven deuterocanonical books rejected by Protestant Reformers."
Luther removed the deuterocanonical books from the Old Testament in the sixteenth century because 2 Maccabees 12 supports prayer for the dead…
Historically Verified
6 sources AD 96–419

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